求美国加州Fontana和Bloomington这两个城市的气候
都在南加州，不像中国那样四季分明 一般5月末就开始热了，6月末到8月末是最热的时候，尤其7月份，白天时候的温度最高能达到100华氏度上下，加上太阳光很强，烤人的那种，但是晚上会相对凉爽一些。建议短衣短裤，如果怕晒再打一把遮阳伞，但是建议你包里或者车上放上一件夹克，因为他们室内空调冷气很强，有的人会受不了。过了热的时候，会有差不多两个月，温度很舒适，不冷不热短袖衫外边套上一件长袖外套就可以。冬天会有两三个月相对冷一些，但也不太冷，长袖衫外穿一件相对厚一点外套（不是羽绒服）即可。
《女囚尼基塔》百度网盘免费在线观看，吕克·贝松导演的
链接:
提取码: 8fxv
导演:吕克·贝松
编剧:吕克·贝松
主演:安娜·帕里约、马克·迪莱特、PatrickFontana、洛朗·布兰切、史蒂法纳·费伊、切基·卡尤、RénosMandis、让娜·莫罗、菲利普·勒鲁瓦、让·雨果·安格拉德、让·雷诺
类型:动作、惊悚、犯罪
制片国家、地区:法国、意大利
语言:法语、意大利语
上映日期:1993-10(中国大陆)、1990-02-21(法国)
片长:118分钟、102分钟(中国大陆)
又名:堕落花(港)、霹雳煞(台)、尼基塔、妮基塔、LaFemmeNikita
妮琪塔（安妮·帕里洛德饰）与一群朋友抢劫一家商店的药品，商店的主人与她的朋友都在这次的事件中身亡，妮琪塔则是因为杀了一位警察而被送入狱。此时来了一个神秘的政府组织，选上了妮琪塔，并训练她成为特务杀手，在经过数年的特务训练之后，妮琪塔以一个平凡的护士身份回到现实的生活中，在此时她爱上了一个男人，他们的关系在妮琪塔接到一个特务命令时，面临了紧张的局面...
去冰岛旅游带什么
导语：去冰岛旅游时，不同季节需要带的东西也有不同。以下是我带来的去冰岛旅游带什么，供各位参考，希望对大家有用。
冰岛的风
冰岛是一个多风的国家——请注意，我在这里所指的“风”并非那种有些惬意的微风，而是那种真正意义上的“强风”，它们伴着风暴而来，盘旋在冬季的高地上。冰岛冬季的气温并没有特别低（通常维持在0摄氏度左右，有时在零下10摄氏度和零上10摄氏度之间浮动），但大风带来的风寒指数也足以称为一道冰式“盛宴”了。对大多数游客们来说，大家想要的是寻找极光踪迹的野外探险，这与在城中的活动完全不同，即使外面的气温给fontana是哪个国家你感觉不是那么低，但也一定要确保带足了保暖衣物。
除了必备的基本的T恤衫、裤子、内衣之外，我还建议你带上下面这些：
防风夹克：防风衣到用时方恨少。
一至两件保暖的毛衣：为大家推荐冰岛著名的羊毛衣lopapeysa，好看又实用。
保暖内衣裤：即使在夏天也要常备，以防万一。在你去潜水或者徒步旅行的时候，它会派上大用场的。
羊毛袜：一双看似普通的袜子将在你夏天探索高原风光、冬季体验小镇风情的旅行中给予你一份不可多得的温暖。
手套：它将成为你在观鲸和骑马体验中的最佳伙伴。
暖和的帽子：冰岛过冬必备，夏天野营的时候戴着它也很方便。
围巾：如果你喜欢搭配围巾的话。
泳衣和浴巾：不论什么季节，都一定带上，冰岛这么多温泉，你不会后悔的。
冰岛的冬
This is what Icelandic winter might look like！
在北纬66度附近的冰岛过冬，这种体验绝对是独一无二的。你需要一件保暖的夹克外套，一件厚实的羽绒服也可以。要是没有的话，可以多带几件毛衣，羊绒和羊毛质地的都不错。冰岛的冬天比较好的一个地方是，这里气候比较干燥，所以你可以随意穿着羊毛制品，完全不必担心。冰岛人很喜欢说的一句话是，无所谓太冷，只看你穿的对不对了。
额外的冬季打包建议：
一件暖和的大外套：你会感谢我的！
一双品质好的、防水的冬靴：你很可能需要在雪面、冰面，或冰雪面上行走。
冰岛的夏
Icelandic summernight
冰岛的盛夏几乎每天的光照时间都能达到24小时。夏天在冰岛晒出古铜色也不是什么不可能的事情。夜间的气温也不会大幅下降，只会有小幅的浮动。所以夏天来冰岛，一定记得带上太阳镜。如果你打算开车，太阳镜的重要性就更加显而易见了。
夏季无限长的光照时间对旅行观光大有益处，然而，如果你觉得在这样的白昼中难以入睡，可能需要带一个眼罩，以防房间里没有足够厚的窗帘。很多第一次来冰岛的人没有意识到这一点，大夏天的凌晨半夜被阳光闪醒，再骂人也没用哦！
冰岛的温泉和泳池
The Blue Lagoon in Iceland
就算你在冬天来冰岛，也请一定记得带上泳衣！
雷克雅未克有很多温泉游泳池，事实上冰岛其fontana是哪个国家他地区的泳池也星罗棋布。除了水温宜人的游泳池和温泉池（雪天泡在暖和的温泉水里真的非常享受），大家还可以选择去野温泉、温泉河，或者湖中享受这份温暖的乐趣。
最著名的自然是蓝湖温泉Blue Lagoon，此外还有Fontana地热温泉、米湖天然温泉（Myvatn Nature Baths）等。
除此之外，辛格维利尔国家公园（ingvellir National Park）附近的丝浮拉大裂缝（Silfra）是一个绝佳的浮潜、潜水胜地，要注意的是：任何游客都可以体验浮潜的乐趣，但潜水者必须带上经认证过的潜水执照。
冰岛的地貌
It would be good to get a picture of this blue ice！
冰岛任何地方的风景都美得足以让人窒息。如果你喜欢拍照，千万不能忘了你的相机或者手机，还有充电器、额外的储存卡！如果你热爱摄影，那么请带上你所有的镜头，还有三脚架，甚至可以参加一个冰岛摄影团。
在这里我一定要提醒大家：电池在低温天气中耗费更快。所以，记得带上备用电池以防万一，当你你坚守在漆黑、寒冷的野外等待拍摄北极光的时候，它们会派上大用场。如果你因为电池用光而错过了捕捉到北极光的瞬间，那可就太扫兴了。
冰岛的插座是标准的欧洲双孔圆形插座（220伏特），如果你从欧洲以外的地区过来，别忘了带一个电源适配器（或者选择在冰岛购买）。
在冰岛徒步
Looking over the landscape in Landmannalaugar
如果你打算在冰岛徒步旅行，请一定做好随时邂逅各种天气的准备。
要是你参加的旅行项目提供食宿，那么恭喜你，你的行李轻松了不少。徒步爱好者们请看过来，下面是给你们的一些小建议：
登山鞋：若是那种短途的、要求不高的徒步旅行，那么你满可以穿着运动鞋完成fontana是哪个国家；但如果你的这次徒步旅行对装备要求严格的话，那一定要穿着合适的登山鞋才行。
质量好的袜子：新鞋配好袜，你一定也是这么想的。
保暖内衣裤：不管能不能用上，一定要带着，以防万一！
登山裤：早上可能还晴空万里，但也许不久就会变得很冷。应对这里多变的天气，还是多预备几条为好。
短裤：盛夏也许会有很暖和的时候，可以带一点轻薄的。
毛衣，一件厚实的、一件轻薄透气的：最好多预备一件，免得另外一件沾了雨水或汗水湿掉。感觉体温低的时候赶紧穿上。
防风夹克：冰岛风大的时候不少，用的上！
防雨外套：用处很大，既可以防雨，又便于你近距离参观瀑布。
手套和保暖的帽子
泳衣和浴巾：在徒步旅行中很可能有机会泡温泉，千万不要错过！
热宝宝：用来给你的鞋子、睡袋或自己的身体快速加温。
质量好的背包：把你的行李都放进去，千万不要放在斜挎包或者塑料袋里，免得消耗体力。
如果你的徒步之旅是独自一人或仅和几个朋友一起，那么你还得带着帐篷、睡袋、垫子、烹饪用具（煤气炉、煤气、锅、餐具、盘子、杯子等），还有，记得提前买好并带好你所需的食物。在徒步过程中，几乎都是没有商店的。至于净水片······在冰岛你就不需要带了，你甚至根本不需要带太多水。我跟你保证，你能喝到的都是来源于地下的纯净的泉水。
还有一点，记得带上卫生纸和一个袋子，把你的···“残留品”捡起来带走。总而言之，不要在冰岛野外留下任何人类活动的痕迹（包括烟头和人类产生的废品）。任何一个冰岛人都很不乐意看到我们的自然环境被破坏。
如果你对徒步感兴趣，还可以阅读这篇《在冰岛徒步旅行》。
在雷克雅未克度假
Reykjavík during New Years Eve
让我引以为傲的是，冰岛是一个时尚的国度，首都雷克雅未克无时不在闪耀着一种活泼、灵动的色彩，很多当地人都乐于展示他们独特的街头时尚。在这里，你很容易找到设计感很强的商店，也能很快注意到当地人和游客的不同之处。如果你想混入游客队伍，很简单，根据我多年的经验，穿亮色的雨衣和卡其色的裤子，再背上大相机，带着一脸迷茫的表情，准是游客无误！
Reykjavík street fashion
如果你想混入当地人的潮流中，那夏天穿上时髦的牛仔裤、衬衫和皮夹克（女性可以穿新潮的上衣或裙子）；冬天要搭配上那些有设计感的羊毛或皮草。
冰岛羊毛衣（lopapeysa）无论在当地人还是在游客中都非常受欢迎，在这里你可以买到不同设计款式、不同形状、不同颜色的冰岛羊毛衣，大地色是目前最流行的颜色。
这里的人们乐于为夜生活而打扮自己，男生们喜欢穿西装外套、搭配领结或领带，下着时尚的牛仔裤；女孩儿们则喜欢印花的紧身衣和裙子，或是搭配一件新潮的上衣。尽管黑色是主色调，但你绝对不必担心穿得太明艳，敢于为你自己的风格冒一次险，你就会是雷克雅未克之夜的一颗明星。
其它建议
除此之外，当然还有一些基本随身物品，比如护照、手机、飞机票和钱包，以及爱美人士在徒步游中必不可少的防晒霜。我建议大家选择一位能教你准确读出冰岛地名的导游；当然，如果你想自驾游，千万不要忘记带上驾驶执照。
最后一点，在冰岛信用卡或借记卡消费十分便利，所以实际上你并没必要随身携带太多冰岛克朗，毕竟在其它国家兑换到冰岛克朗也可能会有些困难。
冰岛的四季
毫无疑问，每个季节都有它的独特之处，每个人都有自己的偏好。
夏季是冰岛的旅游最旺季，游客最多。因为冰岛夏天相对温暖，白昼时间超长，有更加丰富的文化节庆活动，非常适合旅游观光。很多初次来冰岛的朋友都愿意选择夏季。
如果你已经不是第一次来，完全可以体验一下其它季节，会是和夏季截然不同的景色，一般还能便宜不少。而有些风光，则非冬季没有，比如美丽的北极光和梦幻的蓝冰洞。
冰岛的春季
4月至5月是冰岛的春季。每年4月18日之后的第一个周四是冰岛的“初夏节”，象征冰岛夏季的第一天。不过真的也就是象征，这一天下下雪不是什么稀奇事。与其说是初夏节，更像是初春到来。4、5月的冰岛时不时还会落雪，但山上和内陆高地的积雪会开始慢慢融化。春意也偷偷的开始包围雷克雅未克。
春季还是鸟类迁徙回冰岛的季节，其中就包括可爱的海鹦鸟，它们会一直待到8月。还有一种叫做Lóa的金斑鸻鸟，通常在3月末就会回到冰岛。
在春天的雷克雅未克，你依然可能邂逅大雪、大雨、雨夹雪，但是雨过天晴后总是让人神清气爽。春季的平均气温在0-10°之间，南部地区比北部更加湿润多雨。内陆高地的气温可能会比沿海一带低10°左右，通往内陆的道路依然处于封闭状态。
冰岛的自然开始重新出现绿色，一同回春的还有冰岛人蛰伏了一整个冬季的精神面貌，阳光和温暖越来越近。
春天是来冰岛旅游的好时机，4月下旬以前仍然有机会看到绚丽的北极光，天气也不会想深冬那么冷。同时夏季旺季还未到来，游客数量比较少，费用相对也比较低。
春季来冰岛的优点：
（1）人相对少
（2）5月以前依然有机会看到极光
（3）气温不会过低，没有那么寒冷，首都气温大约在0至10度之间
（4）5月中以后开始可以参加进入火山内部的特色项目
冰岛的夏季
大约5月下旬、6月初，冰岛开始有了夏天的感觉。充足的日照和宜人的温度会一直持续到8月。这段时期是冰岛的旅游旺季。
很多人都听说过冰岛夏季日不落，白昼的长度其实是逐渐增长的，在夏至达到一年的顶峰，随后开始逐渐缩短，直到冬至达到最长的黑夜。
午夜阳光是冰岛夏季最独特的景象，日落和日出仅仅相隔几小时，其间的光影变幻让摄影爱好者彻夜难眠。
超长的日照对于游客来说更是方便，完全不必担心会在黑暗中迷失方向，也不用赶时间在天黑之前到达目的地，在冰岛的5月至8月初，根本不会完全天黑。当然也就没可能看到极光了。如果你担心天太亮、晚上睡不着，记得拉窗帘就好。比较敏感的朋友则最好在夏季来冰岛的时候带上眼罩。
尽管如此，冰岛夏季的天气依然可以很情绪化，有些“倒霉”的`年份甚至让人觉得根本没有夏天。正常来说，冰岛夏季的平均气温在10-15°之间，偶尔会有5°的夏天，偶尔会有25°的夏天。虽然没有春季那么湿润，但是下雨天也是少不了的。但是如果运气好，就能邂逅温和、晴朗又平静的夏季好天气。如果你恰巧在首都雷克雅未克，准能看到一派热闹景象。
各种各样的节庆都在夏季举行，人们也喜欢在这个时间露营环岛。而最大型的夏季音乐节有虽还年轻但已超级有人气的秘密夏至音乐节(Secret Solstice Music Festival)和ATP音乐节。
夏季来冰岛的优点：
（1）日照充足(没有夜晚)
（2）颜色艳丽，有绿色的草原苔藓地，6月还有大片的鲁冰花
（3）通往西峡湾(Westfjords)、内陆高地地区的路开放
（4）气温宜人，大部分地区都在10度以上，偶尔会上20度
冰岛的秋季
冰岛的秋季从8月末开始，一直持续到10月末、11月初。秋天来冰岛，天气虽然开始转凉，但是还没有冬季那么多雪，气温也不会很低。9月开始很多酒店的价格就已调低，也能节省不少。而从8月底开始，就已经有机会可以看到美丽的北极光了。
温度上，秋季和春季比较相像，一般在0-10°之间。秋季比春季风更强一些，雨也比较多。
大家都知道秋色饱满美丽，在冰岛也不例外。当新落的初雪和秋的金黄、常绿的苔藓与艳红的岩浆交织在一起时，呈现的是最独一无二的色彩组合。下面这张美丽的照片拍摄于秋季的赫伦瀑布。
秋季的时候，许多鸟儿都已迁徙离境，一些夏季旅行团，比如漂流、内陆团，也停止运营。但是如果你喜欢休闲一点，这个季节可以去乡间摘蘑菇、采野蓝莓、草莓。
秋季来冰岛的优点：
（1）日照正常，10月中旬前，日照依然在10小时以上，同时已经可以看到极光
（2）很多地区颜色非常美丽
（3）气温宜人，大部分地区都在0至10度之间
冰岛的冬季
冰岛的冬季比较漫长，会从11月一直持续到3月，这也是一年中黑夜最长的几个月。全年日照时间最短的一天是冬至12月21日，只有4-5个小时的白昼。不过冰岛人特别喜欢圣诞节，这个期间的首都、城镇到处点缀着灯饰，一点也不觉得压抑。
在寒冷的天气里，来杯热巧或者去泡温泉更觉得是人间天堂般的享受。
冬季让大家对冰岛最趋之若鹜的景色，当属北极光和蓝冰洞。蓝冰洞位于欧洲最大的冰川－瓦特纳冰川边缘，只在冬季才可能安全进入。
虽然冰洞只有冬季才可以进入，冰川却是一年四季都可以见到的。夏季时被绿色的景色衬托出一种反差美，冬季则与景色浑然一体，更为壮阔。不过冰岛冬季也不是时时刻刻都被冰雪覆盖，这里的气温没有那么低，所以天气暖和的日子雪会化，依然可以看到不同颜色的地貌。
冰岛冬季的天气是最难以捉摸的。南部比如雷克雅未克的平均气温在0度左右，一般在－5至5°之间浮动。不过如果刮起大风，人体感温就没准了。越靠近北部地区，比如阿库雷里(Akureyri)或伊萨菲厄泽(safjrur)，气温就越低，降雪量也越大。尽管不会达到极端严寒的程度，但也会降到-10°以下。
冰雪、冰锥挂在瀑布边上的景色美的值得受点冻 :P
虽然内陆高地在冬季难以到达，但是许多冰川项目全年运营。冬季去冰川肯定冷一些，记得穿暖和一点！
Reykjavík市区
冰岛首都雷克雅未克，Reykjavík，发音其实大致是“瑞卡未克”，ja不发音，在冰岛语中意为“冒烟的港口”
雷克雅未克市区并不大，天气晴朗的话，适合步行
Hallgrímskirkja大教堂
位于冰岛首都雷克雅未克的Hallgrímskirkja教堂外型如火箭一般，是冰岛最大的教堂，可以登顶俯瞰市区。
维京船Sólfar
在城市海边，从市区地图上很容易找到，雷克雅未克地图北部海岸线上。
Laugavegur购物街
雷克雅未克的主要购物街，有各种纪念品店。
Blue Lagoon 蓝湖
蓝湖是冰岛最大的温泉。温泉是通过将地底的熔岩加热，因湖底蕴藏了大量的矽，湖水蓝绿色，温度保持在37-39度之间。容量达到6百万立升
湖水每40小时就会更换一次，是全世界最大的户外天然温泉。
ingvellir国家公园
自然地理上，冰岛地处美洲大陆板块和欧亚大陆板块交界，两大版块日渐分裂，冰岛正在被逐渐拉伸。公元930年，冰岛人建立了世界第一个民主议会，地点所在就是议会旧址国家公园，ingvellir在冰岛语中的意义就为议会土地，木质展望台正是当年人们集会商讨国家大事的地方，旁边飘扬着的冰岛国旗后方是一道天然的黑色石墙—Lgberg，意为法律岩。
Geysir间歇泉
如今Geysir已神秘的停止喷发
幸好他的小邻居，Strokkur，虽在规模上略小，但守时可靠，每隔5至8分钟便喷发出高达20米的水柱。
Gullfoss黄金大瀑布
从Geysir拾步东上，数分钟后闻声可见黄金瀑布(Gullfoss)
Gullfoss也是极受摄影师和旅行者喜爱的目的地之一。Gullfoss分上下两层，最后流入一个70米纵深的峡谷中。
史费拉大裂缝(Silfra)
史费拉大裂缝(Silfra)，又名丝浮拉大裂缝，位于冰岛著名的辛格韦德利国家公园
水温常年在4度左右，如果怕冷，可以穿干潜水衣；如果喜欢刺激，可以穿湿潜水衣，感受北极的清凉！
塞里雅兰瀑布(Seljalandsfoss)
从悬崖上垂下60米高， 一条小径通向瀑布内侧。
从内部望向山崖外，透过水帘观看日落尤为美丽。
斯科加(Skógafoss)瀑布
斯科加(Skógafoss)瀑布通体洁白，远处望去仿佛一匹雪花绸缎。
Vik的黑沙滩
Skaftafell冰舌区
Skaftafell地区的冰川有许多顺山势流下，就像深处的舌头，顾名思义冰舌(glacier tongue)
Jkulsárlón，冰湖
冰湖是来冰岛绝对不能错过的地方
很多大牌电影，比如007、古墓丽影、蝙蝠侠等，都来这里取景
蓝冰洞
Skaftafell国家公园里非去不可的景点之一，蓝冰洞就位于Skaftafell冰原下方。洞穴里极为罕见的柱状玄武岩结构，看似巨型水晶般的壮观。
大理石进口的哪里比较多？
在国内市场，一般来说，进口石材一般都是伊朗、西班牙、意大利、土耳其、埃及等国家的石材会比较多，其中以意大利产地为优质。
他们参与创建了著名的建筑，包括威尼斯的马可波罗机场、莫斯科GUM百货商店、埃及罗马学院、纽约的麦迪逊大厦酒店等。
罗马的英语介绍
Rome, Ital. Roma, city (1991 pop. 2,775,250), capital of Italy and see of the pope, whose residence, Vatican City, is a sovereign state within the city of Rome. Rome is also the capital of Latium, a region of central Italy, and of Rome prov. It lies on both banks of the Tiber and its affluent, the Aniene, in the Campagna di Roma, between the Apennine Mts. and the Tyrrhenian Sea. Called the Eternal City, it is one of the world's richest cities in history and art and one of its great cultural, religious, and intellectual centers.
The rise of Rome from an insignificant pastoral settlement to perhaps the world's most successful empire—supreme as a lawgiver and organizer, holding sway over virtually all the then-known world W of Persia, on which it left a permanent imprint of its material and cultural achievements—is one of the great epics of history. Whatever its fortunes throughout history, Rome has remained the symbol of European civilization. Because of the complexity of the subject matter, the following article is divided into several sections, and additional information will be found in the articles to which there are cross references. See also Roman art; Roman architecture; Latin literature; Roman religion.
The Modern City
In the past half century Rome has expanded well beyond the walls started in the 3d cent. by Emperor Aurelian, and it now extends north to the Aniene. Long sections of the ancient walls have been preserved, however, and archaeology remains an essential element of modern city-planning in Rome. Ancient marble columns and ruins rising beside modern apartments and offices, noisy boulevards, and luxurious villas and gardens characterize the modern city of Rome. As in ancient times, the larger section of Rome lies on the left bank of the Tiber, which intersects the city in three wide curves and is spanned by over 20 bridges.
Economy
As in ancient times Rome is a center of transportation. It is the focus of international traffic by road, rail, sea (at the port of Civitavecchia), and air (at Leonardo da Vinci international airport at Fiumicino) and is as well a cultural, religious, political, and commercial center of international importance. Public transportation in Rome is provided by an elaborate bus system. A subway, the Metropolitana, was opened in 1955. Rome's large number of automobiles has caused serious traffic congestion, and in the 1970s and 80s various attempts were made to deal with the problem, including the banning of traffic in certain parts of the city. The economy of Rome depends to a very large extent on the tourist trade. The city is also a center of b** ng, insurance, printing, publishing, and fashion. Italy's movie industry (founded in 1936) is located at nearby Cinecitta.
Landmarks and Institutions
Aside from modern residential quarters, the right-bank section of Rome contains Vatican City, including Saint Peter's Church, the Castel Sant' Angelo, and the ancient quarter of Trastevere. In describing the larger left-bank section one may use the Piazza Venezia, a central square, as a convenient point of departure. It lies at the foot of the old Capitol (see Capitoline Hill) and borders on the huge monument to King Victor Emmanuel II and on the Palazzo Venezia, a Renaissance palace from the balcony of which Mussolini used to address the crowds. A broad avenue, the Via dei Fori Imperiali, runs from the Piazza Venezia SE to the Colosseum, leaving the Emperors' Fora and at a distance the Church of St. Peter in Chains (San Pietro in Vincoli) to the left, and the Capitol and the ancient Forum to the right. From the Colosseum the Via di San Gregorio continues south past the Arch of Constantine and the Baths of Caracalla to the Appian Way. There, as in other places on the outskirts of Rome, are large catacombs. From the Piazza Venezia another modern thoroughfare, the Via del Mare, leads southwestward to the Tiber and then east past the Basilica of St. Paul's Outside the Walls (San Paolo fuori le Mure) to Ostia, Rome's ancient port now blocked by silt, to the sea at Lido di Roma.
The narrow and busy Via del Corso leads N from the Piazza Venezia past the Piazza Colonna (now the heart of Rome) to the Piazza del Popolo at the gate of the old Flaminian Way. East of the Piazza del Popolo are the Pincian Hill, commanding one of the finest views of Rome, and the famous Borghese Villa. In the widest westward bend of the Tiber, W of the Via del Corso, is the Campo Marzio quarter (anciently, Campus Martius), where most of the medieval buildings are located; there also are the Pantheon (now a church) and the parliament buildings. To the east of the Via del Corso the fashionable Via Condotti leads to the Piazza di Spagna; a flight of 132 steps ascends from that square to the Church of the Santa Trinità dei Monti and the Villa Medici. The Quirinal palace is NE of the Piazza Venezia. In the southeastern section, near the gate of San Giovanni, are the Lateran buildings.
As an educational center Rome possesses—aside from the Univ. of Rome (founded 1303)—the colleges of the church, several academies of fine arts, and the Accademia di Santa Cecilia (founded 1584), the world's oldest academy of music. The opera house is one of Europe's grandest. The various institutes of the Univ. of Rome were formerly scattered throughout the city but were transferred in 1935 to the northeastern section.
Among the countless churches of Rome there are five patriarchal basilicas—St. Peter's, St. John Lateran, St. Mary Major (Santa Maria Maggiore), St. Lawrence Outside the Walls, and St. Paul's Outside the Walls. With the exception of St. Mary Major, the basilicas and other ancient churches occupy the sites of martyrs' tombs. Characteristic of the old Roman churches are their fine mosaics (4th–12th cent.) and the use of colored marble for decoration, introduced in the 12th cent. by the workers in marble known as Cosmati. Rome's first mosque opened in 1995.
Among Rome's many palaces and villas the Farnese Palace (begun 1514) and the Farnesina (1508–11) are particularly famous; others, all dating from the 17th cent., are those of the great Roman families, the Colonna, Chigi, Torlonia, and Doria. Rome is celebrated for its beautiful Renaissance and baroque fountains, such as the ornate Fontana di Trevi (18th cent.). Its richest museums and libraries are in the Vatican. Others include the National (in the Villa Giulia), Capitoline, and Torlonia museums, notable for their antiquities; and the Borghese, Corsini, Doria, and Colonna collections of paintings.
Rome before Augustus
Ancient Rome was built on the east, or left, bank of the Tiber on elevations (now much less prominent) emerging from the marshy lowlands of the Campagna. The seven hills of the ancient city are the Palatine, roughly in the center, with the Capitoline to the northwest and the Quirinal, Viminal, Esquiline, Caelian, and Aventine in an outlying north-southwest curve. The Pincian, N of the Quirinal, is not included among the seven. In the westward bend of the Tiber, W of the Quirinal, lies the Martian Field (Campus Martius), facing the Vatican across the Tiber. On the side of the Tiber opposite the Palatine is the Janiculum, a ridge running north and south, which was fortified in early times.
Early in the first millennium B.C. the Tiber divided the Italic peoples from the Etruscans in the north and west (see Etruscan civilization). Not far to the north were the borders between the Sabines and the Latins; the Sabines were closely related to Roman life from the very beginning. The hills of Rome, free from the malaria that had been the bane of the low-lying plains of Latium, were a healthful and relatively safe place to live and a meeting ground for Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans. In the 8th cent. B.C., the fortified elevation of the Palatine was probably taken by Etruscans, who amalgamated the tiny hamlets about the Palatine into a city-state. Tradition tells of the founding of Rome by Romulus in 753 B.C. (hence the dating ab urbe condita, or AUC, i.e., from the founding of the city), and of the Tarquin family, the Etruscan royal house. It was probably Etruscan rule that civilized Rome and gave it the hegemony of Latium.
The Roman Republic
The Romans overthrew their foreign rulers c.500 B.C. and established the Roman republic, which lasted four centuries. The patrician class controlled the government, but the plebs (who comprised by far the major portion of the population) were allowed to elect the two patrician consuls, who held joint power. The vitality of the patricians was remarkable, and long after political power had been granted to the plebs, experienced patricians continued to govern Rome.
As the majority realized its power and the aristocracy continued its rule, the people demanded (and received) privilege after privilege; the greatest were the election of plebeian tribunes (see tribune) and the codification (c.450 B.C.) of the Twelve Tables. With the growth of the city, multiplication of consular duties called for new officials: quaestor, praetor, and censor. The three popular assemblies, or comitia, developed slowly, but they quietly abstracted legislative power from the patricians. The ancient senate, theoretically the supreme power of the state, became more and more powerful until in the 3d cent. B.C. it controlled the consuls completely.
Although the Roman republic was never a true democracy, historians have modified the traditional view that it was the tool of a powerful aristocracy and have acknowledged that the system had open aspects beyond the control of the ruling class. It remains true, however, that it was under senatorial administration that Rome began its march to world supremacy and that in the end the senate was crushed under the weight of the huge problems of empire.
The Subduing of Italy
In the 4th cent. B.C., Rome extended its influence over W Latium and S Etruria; during the course of that century and the next, Rome came in full contact with Greek culture, which modified Roman life tremendously. The idea of the old Roman courage and morality, however, was kept alive by such staunch conservatives as Cato the Elder. The power of the city may be inferred from the tremendous impression the sack of Rome (390 B.C.) by the Gauls made in subsequent times.
The Samnites were subdued in the wars dated conventionally 343–341 B.C., 326–304 B.C., and 298–290 B.C., and the inhabitants of Picenum, Umbria, Apulia, Lucania, and Etruria were pacified. The Roman policy in subduing Italy was that of a master toward slaves. Tarentum, besieged by the Romans, called for the aid of Pyrrhus of Epirus; he won victories at Heraclea (280 B.C.) and Asculum (279 B.C.), but after a dispute with his Italian allies he returned to Greece, leaving the Romans masters of central and S Italy.
Conquests Overseas and to the East
Rome, previously a continental power, began to look seaward in the 3d cent. B.C. Sicily, a granary of the ancient world, was an obvious goal, but Rome's rapid conquests could not continue there without meeting the like ambitions of Carthage, which ruled the W Mediterranean. The Punic Wars were thus inevitable, and in this titanic struggle the fate of Carthage and the destiny of Rome were decided. Although Carthage had the great general Hannibal, Rome fought with the resources of Italy behind it and had such leaders as Scipio Africanus Major. Rome gained from the Punic Wars dominion over Spain, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and the northern shores of Africa, indisputable hegemony in the Mediterranean, and an insatiable desire for conquest.
With Carthage humbled, the Roman republic turned its attention eastward. Philip V of Macedon was defeated after two campaigns (215–205 B.C., 200–197 B.C.), and Antiochus III of Syria was conquered at Magnesia (190 B.C.); eventually the defeat of Perseus (171–168 B.C.) made Macedonia a Roman province. Greece did not become a Roman province, but the brief opposition of the Achaean League was disposed of, and the Greeks became subject to Rome. Egypt acknowledged vassalship to the republic in 168 B.C.
Effects of Expansion
The rapid expansion of Roman dominion, however, had terrible effects at home. The provinces were governed by the senate for the benefit not of Rome but of the senatorial class; enormous wealth (by graft and by trade) flowed into the hands of the senators, who used it exclusively to their own advantage. The equites (see knight), a class of financiers, came into its own through management of imperial trade. Class dissension was rife, and in spite of agrarian laws the masses were daily more dissatisfied. The slaves in Sicily rebelled twice (c.134–132 B.C., c.104–101 B.C.), and the Gracchus brothers in a political victory tried to make the populace more powerful, but such defiance was to no avail. Massacres and incredible barbarities disposed of the slaves' restlessness, and the Gracchi were assassinated (133 and 121 B.C.).
Marius defeated Jugurtha (106 B.C.) and the Cimbri and the Teutons (101 B.C.), and he heralded a new era by definitively introducing Roman arms into Transalpine Gaul. Rome was forced by the Social War (90–88 B.C.) to extend citizenship widely in Italy, but the republic was nevertheless doomed. A slave revolt led by Spartacus was put down mercilessly. Marius, the idol of the populace, used proscription to rid himself of his foes, but Sulla, a conservative, destroyed Marius' party by the same method.
Julius Caesar
After Sulla's retirement his lieutenant Pompey emerged as a popular champion. He abolished some of Sulla's reactionary measures, suppressed Mediterranean piracy, and made himself master of Rome. His defeat of Mithradates VI brought Pontus, Syria, and Phoenicia under Roman dominion.
On Pompey's return from the East, he found an ally for his ambitions in Julius Caesar, a popular democratic leader of the best patrician blood. With Marcus Licinius Crassus to furnish the funds, Pompey and Caesar formed the First Triumvirate (60 B.C.), and Caesar departed to make himself immortal in the Gallic Wars. Within ten years Caesar and Pompey fell out; Pompey joined the senatorial party, and Caesar (as the champion of the people and of republican legality) led his devoted army against Pompey. Pharsalus was the result (48 B.C.), and Caesar was master of Rome.
He governed through the old institutions, with wisdom and vigor. His territorial additions were the most important ever made, for his conquest and organization of Gaul placed Rome in the role of civilizer of barbarians as well as ruler of the older world. The age of Caesar was a great period in Roman culture, and the cosmopolitan Roman was considered the ideal. Greek was the language of much of the empire, and Greek literature became fashionable. Even more influential was Greek thought, which served to destroy Roman religion and to open the Romans to the Eastern cults, which were enormously popular for years. Cicero, an urbane lawyer and philosopher of broad culture, was typical of the period.
At the death (44 B.C.) of Caesar, the territories ruled by Rome included Spain (except part of the northwest), Gaul, Italy, part of Illyria, Macedonia, Greece, W Asia Minor, Bithynia, Pontus, Cilicia, Syria, Cyrenaica, Numidia, and the islands of the sea, and Rome completely controlled Egypt and Palestine. The rule of Caesar marked an epoch, for it completed the destruction of the republic and laid the foundations of the empire.
The Roman Empire
Augustus and the Pax Romana
Caesar's assassination brought anarchy, out of which the Second Triumvirate emerged with the rule of Octavian (later Augustus), Antony, and Lepidus. Octavian was Caesar's nephew, ward, and heir, and his true successor. At Actium (31 B.C.) he defeated Antony and Cleopatra and made the empire one. No change was made in the government, but Octavian received from the senate the title Augustus and from the people life tribuneship; this, with the governorship of all the provinces conferred by the senate, made him the real ruler. He was called imperator [commander] and princeps [leader] and is usually considered the first Roman emperor. (For a list of the Roman Emperors from Augustus to the fall of Rome and the years they reigned, see the table entitled Rulers of the Roman Empire.)
Augustus organized provincial government and the army, rebuilt Rome, and patronized the arts and letters. His rule began a long period (200 years) of peace, called the Pax Romana. During this time the Roman Empire was the largest it would ever be; its boundaries included Armenia, middle Mesopotamia, the Arabian desert, the Red Sea, Nubia, the Sahara, the Moroccan mountain mass, the Atlantic Ocean, the Irish Sea, Scotland, the North Sea, the Rhine, the Danube, the Black Sea, and the Caucasus. Augustus' chief additions to the empire were a strip along the North Sea W of the Elbe and part of the Danubian area.
The blessings of peace were great for the empire. The extensive system of Roman roads made transportation easier than it was again to be until the development of railroads. A postal service was developed closely tied in with the organization of the army. Commerce and industry were greatly developed, particularly by sea, over which grain ships carried food for Rome and the West from the ports of northern Africa. The Roman Empire became under Augustus one great nation. The enlarged view of the world made a great impression on Rome, where literary and artistic interests were of importance, although nearly always tending to imitation of Greece and of the East.
Augustus died A.D. 14 and was succeeded by his stepson Tiberius; his general Germanicus Caesar fought fruitlessly in Germany. Caligula, who followed, was a cruel tyrant (A.D. 37–A.D. 41); he was succeeded by Claudius I (A.D. 41–A.D. 54), who was dominated by his wives, but during his rule half of Britain was conquered (A.D. 43). In his time Thrace, Lydia, and Judaea were made Roman provinces. His stepson Nero (A.D. 54–A.D. 68) was an unparalleled tyrant. In his reign occurred the great fire of Rome (A.D. 64), attributed (probably falsely) to Nero; it burnt everything between the Caelian, the Palatine, and the Esquiline, but it was a boon to the city, for Nero moved the population to the right bank of the Tiber, then very thinly populated, and rebuilt the region with broader streets and great buildings.
At that time an entirely new element, Christianity, made itself felt in Rome. On Nero's orders a barbarous persecution took place in which many Christians died, among them St. Peter and St. Paul. Throughout the Roman Empire the Christians expanded steadily for the next centuries. Their conflict with the empire, which brought on them continual persecution, was chiefly a result of the Christian refusal to offer divine honors to the emperors. But Christianity penetrated the army and the royal household in spite of the constant danger of detection and persecution. There were many periods in the first three centuries when Christians worshiped openly, even in Rome, where the catacombs housed not only graves but also churches.
With Nero the Julio-Claudian line ended. There was a brief struggle (see Galba; Otho; Vitellius) before Vespasian (A.D. 69–A.D. 79) became emperor. Under him his son Titus destroyed Jerusalem (A.D. 70); Titus then briefly succeeded his father. After his mild, rather benign rule, his brother Domitian (A.D. 81–A.D. 96), a despot and persecutor of Christians, gained the empire. In Domitian's reign Agricola conquered Britain almost entirely. Domitian was unsuccessful in his dealings with the Daci and finally bought them off. After Nerva came Trajan (A.D. 98–A.D. 117), one of the greatest of emperors. Trajan undertook great public works, defeated the Daci and established Roman colonies there (in what is now modern
